overlay: replace per-fd tun readers with a batched Queue interface

Device loses io.ReadWriteCloser + NewMultiQueueReader in favor of
Queues(n), which returns up to n tio.Queue objects; platforms without
multiqueue hand back their single queue and the interface sizes its
reader routines to what it actually got. Queue.Read returns a batch of
borrowed packets (single-element for every current backend) so a future
backend can deliver more than one packet per syscall without another
interface change.

The Linux poll/eventfd machinery moves out of tun_linux.go into the new
overlay/tio package: nonblocking fds, a shared shutdown eventfd owned by
the queue set, and pollfd arrays built on the stack so concurrent
writers parked in blockOnWrite no longer share Revents storage. Other
platforms wrap their existing one-datagram Read/Write in a singleQueue
adapter that owns a private scratch buffer, so multiqueue-by-sharing
devices (user, disabled) no longer race concurrent readers on one
buffer.

This is the tun-interface subset of better-tun-interface-ordering,
extracted at 18dc13b with none of the GSO/GRO offload mechanics and no
udp/sendmmsg changes.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Fable 5 <noreply@anthropic.com>

control_lifecycle_test.go

@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/test"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/udp"
@@ -30,9 +31,9 @@ func newFakeDevice() *fakeDevice {
 
 // Read blocks until Close like a real tun with no traffic, then reports EOF
 // the same way a closed device does
-func (d *fakeDevice) Read(p []byte) (int, error) {
+func (d *fakeDevice) Read() ([]tio.Packet, error) {
 	<-d.closedCh
-	return 0, io.EOF
+	return nil, io.EOF
 }
 
 func (d *fakeDevice) Write(p []byte) (int, error) { return len(p), nil }
@@ -49,10 +50,8 @@ func (d *fakeDevice) Activate() error                       { return nil }
 func (d *fakeDevice) Networks() []netip.Prefix              { return nil }
 func (d *fakeDevice) Name() string                          { return "fake" }
 func (d *fakeDevice) RoutesFor(netip.Addr) routing.Gateways { return nil }
-func (d *fakeDevice) SupportsMultiqueue() bool              { return false }
-func (d *fakeDevice) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, errors.New("unsupported")
-}
+
+func (d *fakeDevice) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) { return []tio.Queue{d}, nil }
 
 // newReadyControl hand-builds the minimum Control that Main would have
 // produced right before Start, including the construction token NewInterface
@@ -78,7 +77,6 @@ func newReadyControl(t *testing.T) (*Control, *fakeDevice, *fakeConn) {
 		inside:     dev,
 		outside:    conn,
 		writers:    []udp.Conn{conn},
-		readers:    make([]io.ReadWriteCloser, 1),
 		routines:   1,
 		hostMap:    newHostMap(l),
 		lightHouse: lh,
@@ -155,7 +153,14 @@ type multiqueueDevice struct {
 	*fakeDevice
 }
 
-func (d *multiqueueDevice) SupportsMultiqueue() bool { return true }
+// Queues claims multiqueue support but fails to open the second queue,
+// exercising the activation error path.
+func (d *multiqueueDevice) Queues(n int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	if n > 1 {
+		return nil, errors.New("second queue failed to open")
+	}
+	return d.fakeDevice.Queues(n)
+}
 
 func TestControl_StartMultiqueueFailureReleases(t *testing.T) {
 	dev := &multiqueueDevice{fakeDevice: newFakeDevice()}
@@ -166,7 +171,6 @@ func TestControl_StartMultiqueueFailureReleases(t *testing.T) {
 		inside:   dev,
 		outside:  conn,
 		writers:  []udp.Conn{conn},
-		readers:  make([]io.ReadWriteCloser, 2),
 		routines: 2,
 		l:        test.NewLogger(),
 	}

inside.go

@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ func (f *Interface) consumeInsidePacket(packet []byte, fwPacket *firewall.Packet
 		// routes packets from the Nebula addr to the Nebula addr through the Nebula
 		// TUN device.
 		if immediatelyForwardToSelf {
-			_, err := f.readers[q].Write(packet)
+			_, err := f.queues[q].Write(packet)
 			if err != nil {
 				f.l.Error("Failed to forward to tun", "error", err)
 			}
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ func (f *Interface) rejectInside(packet []byte, out []byte, q int) {
 		return
 	}
 
-	_, err := f.readers[q].Write(out)
+	_, err := f.queues[q].Write(out)
 	if err != nil {
 		f.l.Error("Failed to write to tun", "error", err)
 	}

interface.go

@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
 	"slices"
@@ -20,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/firewall"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/header"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/udp"
 )
 
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ type Interface struct {
 
 	ctx     context.Context
 	writers []udp.Conn
-	readers []io.ReadWriteCloser
+	queues  []tio.Queue
 	wg      sync.WaitGroup
 
 	// fatalErr holds the first unexpected reader error that caused shutdown.
@@ -189,7 +189,6 @@ func NewInterface(ctx context.Context, c *InterfaceConfig) (*Interface, error) {
 		routines:              c.routines,
 		version:               c.version,
 		writers:               make([]udp.Conn, c.routines),
-		readers:               make([]io.ReadWriteCloser, c.routines),
 		myVpnNetworks:         cs.myVpnNetworks,
 		myVpnNetworksTable:    cs.myVpnNetworksTable,
 		myVpnAddrs:            cs.myVpnAddrs,
@@ -240,26 +239,26 @@ func (f *Interface) activate() error {
 		"boringcrypto", boringEnabled(),
 	)
 
-	if f.routines > 1 {
-		if !f.inside.SupportsMultiqueue() || !f.outside.SupportsMultipleReaders() {
-			f.routines = 1
-			f.l.Warn("routines is not supported on this platform, falling back to a single routine")
-		}
+	if f.routines > 1 && !f.outside.SupportsMultipleReaders() {
+		f.routines = 1
+		f.l.Warn("multiple udp readers are not supported on this platform, falling back to a single routine")
 	}
 
-	metrics.GetOrRegisterGauge("routines", nil).Update(int64(f.routines))
-
-	// Prepare n tun queues
-	var reader io.ReadWriteCloser = f.inside
-	for i := 0; i < f.routines; i++ {
-		if i > 0 {
-			reader, err = f.inside.NewMultiQueueReader()
-			if err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-		}
-		f.readers[i] = reader
+	// Prepare the tun queues. A device that can't open that many hands back
+	// fewer (a single queue on platforms without multiqueue support) and we
+	// size the reader routines to what we actually got.
+	queues, err := f.inside.Queues(f.routines)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if len(queues) < f.routines {
+		f.l.Warn("tun multiqueue is not supported on this platform, falling back to fewer routines",
+			"requested", f.routines, "opened", len(queues))
+		f.routines = len(queues)
 	}
+	f.queues = queues
+
+	metrics.GetOrRegisterGauge("routines", nil).Update(int64(f.routines))
 
 	// On error the caller owns the cleanup, Control.Start cancels the service context
 	// before releasing our resources so a waiter never observes a live context
@@ -281,7 +280,7 @@ func (f *Interface) run() {
 	// Launch n queues to read packets from tun dev
 	for i := 0; i < f.routines; i++ {
 		f.wg.Go(func() {
-			f.listenIn(f.readers[i], i)
+			f.listenIn(f.queues[i], i)
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -336,8 +335,7 @@ func (f *Interface) listenOut(i int) {
 	f.l.Debug("underlay reader is done", "reader", i)
 }
 
-func (f *Interface) listenIn(reader io.ReadWriteCloser, i int) {
-	packet := make([]byte, mtu)
+func (f *Interface) listenIn(queue tio.Queue, i int) {
 	out := make([]byte, mtu)
 	fwPacket := &firewall.Packet{}
 	nb := make([]byte, 12, 12)
@@ -345,7 +343,7 @@ func (f *Interface) listenIn(reader io.ReadWriteCloser, i int) {
 	conntrackCache := firewall.NewConntrackCacheTicker(f.ctx, f.l, f.conntrackCacheTimeout)
 
 	for {
-		n, err := reader.Read(packet)
+		pkts, err := queue.Read()
 		if err != nil {
 			// Same shutdown noise handling as listenOut
 			if !f.closed.Load() && f.ctx.Err() == nil {
@@ -355,7 +353,11 @@ func (f *Interface) listenIn(reader io.ReadWriteCloser, i int) {
 			break
 		}
 
-		f.consumeInsidePacket(packet[:n], fwPacket, nb, out, i, conntrackCache.Get())
+		for _, pkt := range pkts {
+			// borrowed: pkt.Bytes is owned by the queue and only valid until
+			// the next Read; consumeInsidePacket reads it synchronously.
+			f.consumeInsidePacket(pkt.Bytes, fwPacket, nb, out, i, conntrackCache.Get())
+		}
 	}
 
 	f.l.Debug("overlay reader is done", "reader", i)

outside.go

@@ -542,7 +542,7 @@ func (f *Interface) handleOutsideMessagePacket(hostinfo *HostInfo, out []byte, p
 		return
 	}
 
-	_, err = f.readers[q].Write(out)
+	_, err = f.queues[q].Write(out)
 	if err != nil {
 		f.l.Error("Failed to write to tun", "error", err)
 	}

overlay/device.go

@@ -4,15 +4,25 @@ import (
 	"io"
 	"net/netip"
 
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 )
 
+// defaultBatchBufSize is the per-Queue scratch size for Read. 65535 covers
+// any single IP packet.
+const defaultBatchBufSize = 65535
+
 type Device interface {
-	io.ReadWriteCloser
+	io.Closer
 	Activate() error
 	Networks() []netip.Prefix
 	Name() string
 	RoutesFor(netip.Addr) routing.Gateways
-	SupportsMultiqueue() bool
-	NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error)
+	// Queues returns the device's packet queues, opening additional ones as
+	// needed until there are n. Platforms without multiqueue support return
+	// their single queue regardless of n, so callers must size reader loops
+	// to len(result), not n; implementations never return more than n. An
+	// error means a queue that should have opened could not; the caller owns
+	// cleanup via Close. Called once, during interface activation.
+	Queues(n int) ([]tio.Queue, error)
 }

overlay/overlaytest/noop.go

@@ -3,10 +3,9 @@
 package overlaytest
 
 import (
-	"errors"
-	"io"
 	"net/netip"
 
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 )
 
@@ -31,20 +30,16 @@ func (NoopTun) Name() string {
 	return "noop"
 }
 
-func (NoopTun) Read([]byte) (int, error) {
-	return 0, nil
+func (NoopTun) Read() ([]tio.Packet, error) {
+	return nil, nil
 }
 
 func (NoopTun) Write([]byte) (int, error) {
 	return 0, nil
 }
 
-func (NoopTun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (NoopTun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, errors.New("unsupported")
+func (NoopTun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{NoopTun{}}, nil
 }
 
 func (NoopTun) Close() error {

overlay/tio/blockon_linux.go

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+//go:build linux && !android
+// +build linux,!android
+
+package tio
+
+import (
+	"os"
+
+	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
+)
+
+// blockOn parks the calling goroutine until fd is ready (events is POLLIN for
+// reads, POLLOUT for writes) or shutdownFd signals teardown. It builds the
+// pollfd array on the stack every call, so concurrent callers on the same
+// Queue never share Revents storage.
+//
+// Returns os.ErrClosed when shutdown was signaled (POLLIN on shutdownFd)
+// or either fd reported a problem condition (POLLHUP|POLLNVAL|POLLERR).
+func blockOn(fd, shutdownFd int32, events int16) error {
+	const problemFlags = unix.POLLHUP | unix.POLLNVAL | unix.POLLERR
+	pfds := [2]unix.PollFd{
+		{Fd: fd, Events: events},
+		{Fd: shutdownFd, Events: unix.POLLIN},
+	}
+	var err error
+	for {
+		_, err = unix.Poll(pfds[:], -1)
+		if err != unix.EINTR {
+			break
+		}
+	}
+	tunEvents := pfds[0].Revents
+	shutdownEvents := pfds[1].Revents
+	// Check err before trusting the potentially bogus bits we just got.
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if shutdownEvents&(unix.POLLIN|problemFlags) != 0 {
+		return os.ErrClosed
+	}
+	if tunEvents&problemFlags != 0 {
+		return os.ErrClosed
+	}
+	return nil
+}

overlay/tio/queueset_poll_linux.go

@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+//go:build linux && !android
+// +build linux,!android
+
+package tio
+
+import (
+	"encoding/binary"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"sync/atomic"
+
+	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
+)
+
+type pollQueueSet struct {
+	pq []*Poll
+	// pqi is exactly the same as pq, but stored as the interface type
+	pqi        []Queue
+	shutdownFd int
+	closed     atomic.Bool
+}
+
+func NewPollQueueSet() (QueueSet, error) {
+	shutdownFd, err := unix.Eventfd(0, unix.EFD_NONBLOCK|unix.EFD_CLOEXEC)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create eventfd: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	out := &pollQueueSet{
+		pq:         []*Poll{},
+		pqi:        []Queue{},
+		shutdownFd: shutdownFd,
+	}
+
+	return out, nil
+}
+
+func (c *pollQueueSet) Queues() []Queue {
+	return c.pqi
+}
+
+func (c *pollQueueSet) Add(fd int) error {
+	x, err := newPoll(fd, c.shutdownFd)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	c.pq = append(c.pq, x)
+	c.pqi = append(c.pqi, x)
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *pollQueueSet) wakeForShutdown() error {
+	var buf [8]byte
+	binary.NativeEndian.PutUint64(buf[:], 1)
+	_, err := unix.Write(int(c.shutdownFd), buf[:])
+	return err
+}
+
+func (c *pollQueueSet) Close() error {
+	if c.closed.Swap(true) {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	errs := []error{}
+
+	// Wake any reader blocked in poll so it observes POLLIN on the shutdown
+	// eventfd and returns os.ErrClosed.
+	if err := c.wakeForShutdown(); err != nil {
+		errs = append(errs, err)
+	}
+
+	// Close the per-queue tun fds; this also unblocks any in-flight reads.
+	// The per-queue Close deliberately leaves shutdownFd alone - it belongs
+	// to this container.
+	for _, x := range c.pq {
+		if err := x.Close(); err != nil {
+			errs = append(errs, err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Close the shutdown eventfd last: every reader's pollfd set references
+	// it, so it must outlive the wake + per-queue teardown above.
+	if err := unix.Close(c.shutdownFd); err != nil {
+		errs = append(errs, err)
+	}
+	c.shutdownFd = -1
+
+	return errors.Join(errs...)
+}

overlay/tio/single.go

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+package tio
+
+import "io"
+
+// singleQueue adapts a legacy one-datagram-per-Read source into a Queue.
+// Read fills a private scratch buffer and returns exactly one Packet whose
+// Bytes borrow from that buffer, valid only until the next Read, per the
+// Queue contract. Single-reader like every Queue; Write is exactly as safe
+// for concurrent use as the underlying source's Write.
+type singleQueue struct {
+	rw     io.ReadWriter
+	closer io.Closer // nil: Close is a no-op (the source is shared and owned elsewhere)
+	buf    []byte
+	ret    [1]Packet
+}
+
+// NewSingleQueue wraps a one-datagram-per-Read ReadWriteCloser (a legacy tun
+// device) into a Queue. bufSize is the per-queue read scratch size and must
+// be at least the largest datagram the source can return. Close closes rwc.
+func NewSingleQueue(rwc io.ReadWriteCloser, bufSize int) Queue {
+	return &singleQueue{rw: rwc, closer: rwc, buf: make([]byte, bufSize)}
+}
+
+// NewSingleQueueNoClose is NewSingleQueue for a source owned by someone else,
+// e.g. several queues sharing one device. Close on the returned Queue is a
+// no-op so one queue can't tear the shared source out from under its
+// siblings; the owner remains responsible for closing the source itself.
+func NewSingleQueueNoClose(rw io.ReadWriter, bufSize int) Queue {
+	return &singleQueue{rw: rw, buf: make([]byte, bufSize)}
+}
+
+func (q *singleQueue) Read() ([]Packet, error) {
+	n, err := q.rw.Read(q.buf)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	q.ret[0] = Packet{Bytes: q.buf[:n]}
+	return q.ret[:], nil
+}
+
+func (q *singleQueue) Write(p []byte) (int, error) {
+	return q.rw.Write(p)
+}
+
+func (q *singleQueue) Close() error {
+	if q.closer == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return q.closer.Close()
+}

overlay/tio/tio.go

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+package tio
+
+import (
+	"io"
+)
+
+// QueueSet holds one or many Queue objects and helps close them in an orderly way.
+type QueueSet interface {
+	io.Closer
+	Queues() []Queue
+
+	// Add takes a tun fd, adds it to the set, and prepares it for use as a Queue.
+	Add(fd int) error
+}
+
+// Queue is a readable/writable packet queue. Concurrency contract: a single
+// read goroutine drives Read; plain Write is safe for concurrent callers.
+type Queue interface {
+	io.Closer
+
+	// Read returns one or more packets. The returned Packet.Bytes slices
+	// are borrowed from the Queue's internal buffer and are only valid
+	// until the next Read or Close on this Queue - callers must encrypt
+	// or copy each slice before the next call. Single-reader only: not
+	// safe for concurrent Reads (it reuses per-queue rx scratch each call).
+	Read() ([]Packet, error)
+
+	// Write emits a single packet on the plaintext (outside→inside)
+	// delivery path. Safe for concurrent use.
+	Write(p []byte) (int, error)
+}
+
+// Packet is the unit Queue.Read returns. Bytes points into the queue's
+// internal buffer and is only valid until the next Read or Close on the
+// queue that produced it.
+type Packet struct {
+	Bytes []byte
+}
+
+// Clone returns a Packet whose Bytes is a freshly allocated copy of p.Bytes,
+// safe to retain past the next Read or Close on the originating Queue.
+// Use this only when a caller genuinely needs to outlive the borrowed-slice
+// contract — the hot path reads should continue to consume the borrow
+// synchronously to avoid the allocation.
+func (p Packet) Clone() Packet {
+	if p.Bytes == nil {
+		return p
+	}
+	cp := make([]byte, len(p.Bytes))
+	copy(cp, p.Bytes)
+	return Packet{Bytes: cp}
+}

overlay/tio/tio_poll_linux.go

@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+//go:build linux && !android
+// +build linux,!android
+
+package tio
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"os"
+	"sync/atomic"
+
+	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
+)
+
+// Maximum size we accept for a single read from a TUN. 65535 covers any
+// single IP packet.
+const tunReadBufSize = 65535
+
+type Poll struct {
+	fd         int
+	shutdownFd int
+	closed     atomic.Bool
+
+	readBuf  []byte
+	batchRet [1]Packet
+}
+
+// newPoll wraps an existing tun fd. On failure it does NOT close fd: the
+// caller owns fd and is the sole closer (see pollQueueSet.Add callers in
+// overlay/tun_linux.go, which unix.Close on Add error). This keeps closes
+// at exactly one on every path.
+func newPoll(fd int, shutdownFd int) (*Poll, error) {
+	if err := unix.SetNonblock(fd, true); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to set Poll device as nonblocking: %w", err)
+	}
+
+	out := &Poll{
+		fd:         fd,
+		shutdownFd: shutdownFd,
+		readBuf:    make([]byte, tunReadBufSize),
+	}
+	return out, nil
+}
+
+// blockOnRead waits until the Poll fd is readable or shutdown has been signaled.
+// Returns os.ErrClosed if Close was called.
+func (t *Poll) blockOnRead() error {
+	return blockOn(int32(t.fd), int32(t.shutdownFd), unix.POLLIN)
+}
+
+func (t *Poll) blockOnWrite() error {
+	return blockOn(int32(t.fd), int32(t.shutdownFd), unix.POLLOUT)
+}
+
+func (t *Poll) Read() ([]Packet, error) {
+	n, err := t.readOne(t.readBuf)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	t.batchRet[0] = Packet{Bytes: t.readBuf[:n]}
+	return t.batchRet[:], nil
+}
+
+func (t *Poll) readOne(to []byte) (int, error) {
+	for {
+		n, errno := unix.Read(t.fd, to)
+		if errno == nil {
+			return n, nil
+		}
+		switch errno {
+		case unix.EAGAIN:
+			if err := t.blockOnRead(); err != nil {
+				return 0, err
+			}
+		case unix.EINTR:
+			// retry
+		case unix.EBADF:
+			return 0, os.ErrClosed
+		default:
+			return 0, errno
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// Write is safe for concurrent use
+func (t *Poll) Write(from []byte) (int, error) {
+	for {
+		n, errno := unix.Write(t.fd, from)
+		if errno == nil {
+			return n, nil
+		}
+		switch errno {
+		case unix.EAGAIN:
+			if err := t.blockOnWrite(); err != nil {
+				return 0, err
+			}
+		case unix.EINTR:
+			// retry
+		case unix.EBADF:
+			return 0, os.ErrClosed
+		default:
+			return 0, errno
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func (t *Poll) Close() error {
+	if t.closed.Swap(true) {
+		return nil
+	}
+	//shutdownFd is owned by the container, so we should not close it
+	// Close the underlying fd but do NOT null t.fd: a reader may still be
+	// loading it in readOne, and mutating the field would race that load.
+	// It gets EBADF -> os.ErrClosed (or wakes via the shutdown eventfd's
+	// ppoll first). closed.Swap already guarantees we only close once.
+	return unix.Close(t.fd)
+}

overlay/tio/tun_file_linux_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,208 @@
+//go:build linux && !android && !e2e_testing
+// +build linux,!android,!e2e_testing
+
+package tio
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"os"
+	"sync"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
+)
+
+// newReadPipe returns a read fd. The matching write fd is registered for cleanup.
+// The caller takes ownership of the read fd (pass it into a QueueSet).
+func newReadPipe(t *testing.T) int {
+	t.Helper()
+	var fds [2]int
+	if err := unix.Pipe2(fds[:], unix.O_CLOEXEC); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("pipe2: %v", err)
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = unix.Close(fds[1]) })
+	return fds[0]
+}
+
+func TestPoll_WakeForShutdown_WakesFriends(t *testing.T) {
+	pipe1 := newReadPipe(t)
+	pipe2 := newReadPipe(t)
+	parent, err := NewPollQueueSet()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, parent.Add(pipe1))
+	require.NoError(t, parent.Add(pipe2))
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		_ = unix.Close(pipe1)
+		_ = unix.Close(pipe2)
+	})
+
+	readers := parent.Queues()
+	errs := make([]error, len(readers))
+	var wg sync.WaitGroup
+	for i, r := range readers {
+		wg.Add(1)
+		go func(i int, r Queue) {
+			defer wg.Done()
+			_, errs[i] = r.Read()
+		}(i, r)
+	}
+
+	time.Sleep(50 * time.Millisecond)
+
+	if err := parent.Close(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Close: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	done := make(chan struct{})
+	go func() { wg.Wait(); close(done) }()
+	select {
+	case <-done:
+	case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
+		t.Fatal("readers did not wake")
+	}
+
+	for i, err := range errs {
+		if !errors.Is(err, os.ErrClosed) {
+			t.Errorf("reader %d: expected os.ErrClosed, got %v", i, err)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// TestPoll_ConcurrentWrite_NoRace hammers a single Poll queue from two writer
+// goroutines while a reader drains the other end of the pipe. The writers
+// overflow the pipe buffer, so both repeatedly park in blockOnWrite at the same
+// time — the exact scenario that raced on the old shared writePoll member
+// array. Run under -race; a shared-array regression trips the detector here.
+func TestPoll_ConcurrentWrite_NoRace(t *testing.T) {
+	var fds [2]int
+	require.NoError(t, unix.Pipe2(fds[:], unix.O_CLOEXEC))
+	readFd, writeFd := fds[0], fds[1]
+
+	shutdownFd, err := unix.Eventfd(0, unix.EFD_NONBLOCK|unix.EFD_CLOEXEC)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = unix.Close(shutdownFd) })
+
+	p, err := newPoll(writeFd, shutdownFd)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	const writers = 2
+	const perWriter = 4000
+	payload := make([]byte, 100)
+	total := writers * perWriter * len(payload)
+
+	// Reader: drain the read end (blocking) until every writer's bytes are
+	// consumed, so the writers keep making progress rather than wedging on a
+	// permanently full pipe.
+	readDone := make(chan struct{})
+	go func() {
+		defer close(readDone)
+		buf := make([]byte, 4096)
+		got := 0
+		for got < total {
+			n, rerr := unix.Read(readFd, buf)
+			got += n
+			if rerr != nil {
+				if rerr == unix.EINTR {
+					continue
+				}
+				return
+			}
+			if n == 0 { // EOF
+				return
+			}
+		}
+	}()
+
+	var wg sync.WaitGroup
+	for w := 0; w < writers; w++ {
+		wg.Add(1)
+		go func() {
+			defer wg.Done()
+			for i := 0; i < perWriter; i++ {
+				if _, werr := p.Write(payload); werr != nil {
+					t.Errorf("write: %v", werr)
+					return
+				}
+			}
+		}()
+	}
+	wg.Wait()
+
+	select {
+	case <-readDone:
+	case <-time.After(10 * time.Second):
+		t.Fatal("reader did not drain")
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, p.Close())
+	_ = unix.Close(readFd)
+}
+
+// TestPoll_NewPoll_DoesNotCloseFdOnFailure pins the ownership rule: when
+// newPoll fails, it must leave fd open so the caller (pollQueueSet.Add's
+// callers in tun_linux.go) is the sole closer. If newPoll also closed fd,
+// the poll path would double-close on Add error. We force the failure with
+// an O_PATH descriptor: fcntl(F_SETFL) — which SetNonblock performs — is not
+// permitted on O_PATH fds and fails with EBADF, while the fd itself stays
+// open so we can observe that newPoll left it alone.
+func TestPoll_NewPoll_DoesNotCloseFdOnFailure(t *testing.T) {
+	fd, err := unix.Open("/", unix.O_PATH|unix.O_CLOEXEC, 0)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = unix.Close(fd) })
+
+	p, err := newPoll(fd, 1)
+	require.Error(t, err, "SetNonblock on an O_PATH fd should fail")
+	require.Nil(t, p)
+
+	// If newPoll had closed fd, F_GETFD would report it closed. It staying
+	// open proves newPoll left the fd for the caller to close exactly once.
+	require.True(t, fdOpen(t, fd), "newPoll must not close fd on failure; caller is the sole closer")
+}
+
+func TestPoll_Close_Idempotent(t *testing.T) {
+	tf, err := newPoll(newReadPipe(t), 1)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	if err := tf.Close(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("first Close: %v", err)
+	}
+	if err := tf.Close(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("second Close should be a no-op, got %v", err)
+	}
+}
+
+// fdOpen reports whether fd currently refers to an open file description.
+// A closed (or never-allocated) fd makes F_GETFD fail with EBADF.
+func fdOpen(t *testing.T, fd int) bool {
+	t.Helper()
+	_, err := unix.FcntlInt(uintptr(fd), unix.F_GETFD, 0)
+	if err == nil {
+		return true
+	}
+	if errors.Is(err, unix.EBADF) {
+		return false
+	}
+	t.Fatalf("unexpected fcntl(F_GETFD) error on fd %d: %v", fd, err)
+	return false
+}
+
+// TestPollQueueSet_Close_ClosesShutdownFd is the regression test for the
+// leaked shutdown eventfd: the container that owns shutdownFd must close it in
+// Close, and a second Close must be a safe no-op.
+func TestPollQueueSet_Close_ClosesShutdownFd(t *testing.T) {
+	qs, err := NewPollQueueSet()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	c, ok := qs.(*pollQueueSet)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	require.NoError(t, qs.Add(newReadPipe(t)))
+
+	shutdownFd := c.shutdownFd
+	require.True(t, fdOpen(t, shutdownFd), "shutdown eventfd should be open before Close")
+
+	require.NoError(t, qs.Close())
+	require.False(t, fdOpen(t, shutdownFd), "shutdown eventfd should be closed after Close")
+
+	// Second Close must not touch fds (shutdownFd is now -1) and must return nil.
+	require.NoError(t, qs.Close())
+}

overlay/tun_android.go

@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 )
@@ -63,7 +64,7 @@ func (t *tun) RoutesFor(ip netip.Addr) routing.Gateways {
 	return r
 }
 
-func (t tun) Activate() error {
+func (t *tun) Activate() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -96,10 +97,6 @@ func (t *tun) Name() string {
 	return "android"
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for android")
+func (t *tun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }

overlay/tun_darwin.go

@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ package overlay
 import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
 	"os"
@@ -16,6 +15,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	netroute "golang.org/x/net/route"
@@ -606,10 +606,6 @@ func (t *tun) Name() string {
 	return t.Device
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for darwin")
+func (t *tun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }

overlay/tun_disabled.go

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/rcrowley/go-metrics"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/iputil"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 )
 
@@ -23,6 +24,23 @@ type disabledTun struct {
 	l  *slog.Logger
 }
 
+// Read hands the next queued packet to a reader, copying it into b. Reads
+// from concurrent queues are safe: the channel receive serializes them and
+// each queue copies into its own private scratch buffer.
+func (t *disabledTun) Read(b []byte) (int, error) {
+	r, ok := <-t.read
+	if !ok {
+		return 0, io.EOF
+	}
+
+	t.tx.Inc(1)
+	if t.l.Enabled(context.Background(), slog.LevelDebug) {
+		t.l.Debug("Write payload", "raw", prettyPacket(r))
+	}
+
+	return copy(b, r), nil
+}
+
 func newDisabledTun(vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix, queueLen int, metricsEnabled bool, l *slog.Logger) *disabledTun {
 	tun := &disabledTun{
 		vpnNetworks: vpnNetworks,
@@ -57,24 +75,6 @@ func (*disabledTun) Name() string {
 	return "disabled"
 }
 
-func (t *disabledTun) Read(b []byte) (int, error) {
-	r, ok := <-t.read
-	if !ok {
-		return 0, io.EOF
-	}
-
-	if len(r) > len(b) {
-		return 0, fmt.Errorf("packet larger than mtu: %d > %d bytes", len(r), len(b))
-	}
-
-	t.tx.Inc(1)
-	if t.l.Enabled(context.Background(), slog.LevelDebug) {
-		t.l.Debug("Write payload", "raw", prettyPacket(r))
-	}
-
-	return copy(b, r), nil
-}
-
 func (t *disabledTun) handleICMPEchoRequest(b []byte) bool {
 	out := make([]byte, len(b))
 	out = iputil.CreateICMPEchoResponse(b, out)
@@ -106,12 +106,14 @@ func (t *disabledTun) Write(b []byte) (int, error) {
 	return len(b), nil
 }
 
-func (t *disabledTun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return true
-}
-
-func (t *disabledTun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return t, nil
+func (t *disabledTun) Queues(n int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	out := make([]tio.Queue, n)
+	for i := range out {
+		// NoClose: the shared channel and metrics are owned by the
+		// disabledTun; Close on the device tears them down once for everybody.
+		out[i] = tio.NewSingleQueueNoClose(t, defaultBatchBufSize)
+	}
+	return out, nil
 }
 
 func (t *disabledTun) Close() error {

overlay/tun_file_linux_test.go

@@ -1,120 +0,0 @@
-//go:build linux && !android && !e2e_testing
-// +build linux,!android,!e2e_testing
-
-package overlay
-
-import (
-	"errors"
-	"os"
-	"sync"
-	"testing"
-	"time"
-
-	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
-)
-
-// newReadPipe returns a read fd. The matching write fd is registered for cleanup.
-// The caller takes ownership of the read fd (pass it to newTunFd / newFriend).
-func newReadPipe(t *testing.T) int {
-	t.Helper()
-	var fds [2]int
-	if err := unix.Pipe2(fds[:], unix.O_CLOEXEC); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("pipe2: %v", err)
-	}
-	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = unix.Close(fds[1]) })
-	return fds[0]
-}
-
-func TestTunFile_WakeForShutdown_UnblocksRead(t *testing.T) {
-	tf, err := newTunFd(newReadPipe(t))
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("newTunFd: %v", err)
-	}
-	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = tf.Close() })
-
-	done := make(chan error, 1)
-	go func() {
-		_, err := tf.Read(make([]byte, 64))
-		done <- err
-	}()
-
-	// Verify Read is actually blocked in poll.
-	select {
-	case err := <-done:
-		t.Fatalf("Read returned before shutdown signal: %v", err)
-	case <-time.After(50 * time.Millisecond):
-	}
-
-	if err := tf.wakeForShutdown(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("wakeForShutdown: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	select {
-	case err := <-done:
-		if !errors.Is(err, os.ErrClosed) {
-			t.Fatalf("expected os.ErrClosed, got %v", err)
-		}
-	case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
-		t.Fatal("Read did not wake on shutdown")
-	}
-}
-
-func TestTunFile_WakeForShutdown_WakesFriends(t *testing.T) {
-	parent, err := newTunFd(newReadPipe(t))
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("newTunFd: %v", err)
-	}
-	friend, err := parent.newFriend(newReadPipe(t))
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = parent.Close()
-		t.Fatalf("newFriend: %v", err)
-	}
-	t.Cleanup(func() {
-		_ = friend.Close()
-		_ = parent.Close()
-	})
-
-	readers := []*tunFile{parent, friend}
-	errs := make([]error, len(readers))
-	var wg sync.WaitGroup
-	for i, r := range readers {
-		wg.Add(1)
-		go func(i int, r *tunFile) {
-			defer wg.Done()
-			_, errs[i] = r.Read(make([]byte, 64))
-		}(i, r)
-	}
-
-	time.Sleep(50 * time.Millisecond)
-
-	if err := parent.wakeForShutdown(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("wakeForShutdown: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	done := make(chan struct{})
-	go func() { wg.Wait(); close(done) }()
-	select {
-	case <-done:
-	case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
-		t.Fatal("readers did not wake")
-	}
-
-	for i, err := range errs {
-		if !errors.Is(err, os.ErrClosed) {
-			t.Errorf("reader %d: expected os.ErrClosed, got %v", i, err)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func TestTunFile_Close_Idempotent(t *testing.T) {
-	tf, err := newTunFd(newReadPipe(t))
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("newTunFd: %v", err)
-	}
-	if err := tf.Close(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("first Close: %v", err)
-	}
-	if err := tf.Close(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("second Close should be a no-op, got %v", err)
-	}
-}

overlay/tun_freebsd.go

@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ import (
 	"bytes"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"io/fs"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
@@ -20,7 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
-
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	netroute "golang.org/x/net/route"
@@ -561,12 +560,8 @@ func (t *tun) Name() string {
 	return t.Device
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for freebsd")
+func (t *tun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }
 
 func (t *tun) addRoutes(logErrors bool) error {

overlay/tun_ios.go

@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
@@ -159,10 +160,6 @@ func (t *tun) Name() string {
 	return "iOS"
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for ios")
+func (t *tun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }

overlay/tun_linux.go

@@ -4,9 +4,7 @@
 package overlay
 
 import (
-	"encoding/binary"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net"
 	"net/netip"
@@ -19,180 +17,15 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	"github.com/vishvananda/netlink"
 	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
 )
 
-// tunFile wraps a TUN file descriptor with poll-based reads. The FD provided will be changed to non-blocking.
-// A shared eventfd allows Close to wake all readers blocked in poll.
-type tunFile struct {
-	fd         int
-	shutdownFd int
-	lastOne    bool
-	readPoll   [2]unix.PollFd
-	writePoll  [2]unix.PollFd
-	closed     bool
-}
-
-// newFriend makes a tunFile for a MultiQueueReader that copies the shutdown eventfd from the parent tun
-func (r *tunFile) newFriend(fd int) (*tunFile, error) {
-	if err := unix.SetNonblock(fd, true); err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to set tun fd non-blocking: %w", err)
-	}
-	return &tunFile{
-		fd:         fd,
-		shutdownFd: r.shutdownFd,
-		readPoll: [2]unix.PollFd{
-			{Fd: int32(fd), Events: unix.POLLIN},
-			{Fd: int32(r.shutdownFd), Events: unix.POLLIN},
-		},
-		writePoll: [2]unix.PollFd{
-			{Fd: int32(fd), Events: unix.POLLOUT},
-			{Fd: int32(r.shutdownFd), Events: unix.POLLIN},
-		},
-	}, nil
-}
-
-func newTunFd(fd int) (*tunFile, error) {
-	if err := unix.SetNonblock(fd, true); err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to set tun fd non-blocking: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	shutdownFd, err := unix.Eventfd(0, unix.EFD_NONBLOCK|unix.EFD_CLOEXEC)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create eventfd: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	out := &tunFile{
-		fd:         fd,
-		shutdownFd: shutdownFd,
-		lastOne:    true,
-		readPoll: [2]unix.PollFd{
-			{Fd: int32(fd), Events: unix.POLLIN},
-			{Fd: int32(shutdownFd), Events: unix.POLLIN},
-		},
-		writePoll: [2]unix.PollFd{
-			{Fd: int32(fd), Events: unix.POLLOUT},
-			{Fd: int32(shutdownFd), Events: unix.POLLIN},
-		},
-	}
-
-	return out, nil
-}
-
-func (r *tunFile) blockOnRead() error {
-	const problemFlags = unix.POLLHUP | unix.POLLNVAL | unix.POLLERR
-	var err error
-	for {
-		_, err = unix.Poll(r.readPoll[:], -1)
-		if err != unix.EINTR {
-			break
-		}
-	}
-	//always reset these!
-	tunEvents := r.readPoll[0].Revents
-	shutdownEvents := r.readPoll[1].Revents
-	r.readPoll[0].Revents = 0
-	r.readPoll[1].Revents = 0
-	//do the err check before trusting the potentially bogus bits we just got
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	if shutdownEvents&(unix.POLLIN|problemFlags) != 0 {
-		return os.ErrClosed
-	} else if tunEvents&problemFlags != 0 {
-		return os.ErrClosed
-	}
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (r *tunFile) blockOnWrite() error {
-	const problemFlags = unix.POLLHUP | unix.POLLNVAL | unix.POLLERR
-	var err error
-	for {
-		_, err = unix.Poll(r.writePoll[:], -1)
-		if err != unix.EINTR {
-			break
-		}
-	}
-	//always reset these!
-	tunEvents := r.writePoll[0].Revents
-	shutdownEvents := r.writePoll[1].Revents
-	r.writePoll[0].Revents = 0
-	r.writePoll[1].Revents = 0
-	//do the err check before trusting the potentially bogus bits we just got
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	if shutdownEvents&(unix.POLLIN|problemFlags) != 0 {
-		return os.ErrClosed
-	} else if tunEvents&problemFlags != 0 {
-		return os.ErrClosed
-	}
-	return nil
-}
-
-func (r *tunFile) Read(buf []byte) (int, error) {
-	for {
-		if n, err := unix.Read(r.fd, buf); err == nil {
-			return n, nil
-		} else if err == unix.EAGAIN {
-			if err = r.blockOnRead(); err != nil {
-				return 0, err
-			}
-			continue
-		} else if err == unix.EINTR {
-			continue
-		} else if err == unix.EBADF {
-			return 0, os.ErrClosed
-		} else {
-			return 0, err
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func (r *tunFile) Write(buf []byte) (int, error) {
-	for {
-		if n, err := unix.Write(r.fd, buf); err == nil {
-			return n, nil
-		} else if err == unix.EAGAIN {
-			if err = r.blockOnWrite(); err != nil {
-				return 0, err
-			}
-			continue
-		} else if err == unix.EINTR {
-			continue
-		} else if err == unix.EBADF {
-			return 0, os.ErrClosed
-		} else {
-			return 0, err
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func (r *tunFile) wakeForShutdown() error {
-	var buf [8]byte
-	binary.NativeEndian.PutUint64(buf[:], 1)
-	_, err := unix.Write(int(r.readPoll[1].Fd), buf[:])
-	return err
-}
-
-func (r *tunFile) Close() error {
-	if r.closed { // avoid closing more than once. Technically a fd could get re-used, which would be a problem
-		return nil
-	}
-	r.closed = true
-	if r.lastOne {
-		_ = unix.Close(r.shutdownFd)
-	}
-	return unix.Close(r.fd)
-}
-
 type tun struct {
-	*tunFile
-	readers     []*tunFile
+	readers     tio.QueueSet
 	closeLock   sync.Mutex
 	Device      string
 	vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix
@@ -249,44 +82,57 @@ func newTunFromFd(c *config.C, l *slog.Logger, deviceFd int, vpnNetworks []netip
 	return t, nil
 }
 
-func newTun(c *config.C, l *slog.Logger, vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix, multiqueue bool) (*tun, error) {
+// openTunDev opens /dev/net/tun, creating the device node first if it's
+// missing (docker containers occasionally omit it).
+func openTunDev() (int, error) {
 	fd, err := unix.Open("/dev/net/tun", os.O_RDWR, 0)
+	if err == nil {
+		return fd, nil
+	}
+	if !os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		return -1, err
+	}
+	if err = os.MkdirAll("/dev/net", 0755); err != nil {
+		return -1, fmt.Errorf("/dev/net/tun doesn't exist, failed to mkdir -p /dev/net: %w", err)
+	}
+	if err = unix.Mknod("/dev/net/tun", unix.S_IFCHR|0600, int(unix.Mkdev(10, 200))); err != nil {
+		return -1, fmt.Errorf("failed to create /dev/net/tun: %w", err)
+	}
+	fd, err = unix.Open("/dev/net/tun", os.O_RDWR, 0)
 	if err != nil {
-		// If /dev/net/tun doesn't exist, try to create it (will happen in docker)
-		if os.IsNotExist(err) {
-			err = os.MkdirAll("/dev/net", 0755)
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("/dev/net/tun doesn't exist, failed to mkdir -p /dev/net: %w", err)
-			}
-			err = unix.Mknod("/dev/net/tun", unix.S_IFCHR|0600, int(unix.Mkdev(10, 200)))
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create /dev/net/tun: %w", err)
-			}
-
-			fd, err = unix.Open("/dev/net/tun", os.O_RDWR, 0)
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("created /dev/net/tun, but still failed: %w", err)
-			}
-		} else {
-			return nil, err
-		}
+		return -1, fmt.Errorf("created /dev/net/tun, but still failed: %w", err)
 	}
+	return fd, nil
+}
 
+// tunSetIff runs TUNSETIFF with the given flags and returns the kernel-chosen
+// device name on success.
+func tunSetIff(fd int, name string, flags uint16) (string, error) {
 	var req ifReq
-	req.Flags = uint16(unix.IFF_TUN | unix.IFF_NO_PI)
+	req.Flags = flags
+	copy(req.Name[:], name)
+	if err := ioctl(uintptr(fd), uintptr(unix.TUNSETIFF), uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&req))); err != nil {
+		return "", err
+	}
+	return strings.Trim(string(req.Name[:]), "\x00"), nil
+}
+
+func newTun(c *config.C, l *slog.Logger, vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix, multiqueue bool) (*tun, error) {
+	baseFlags := uint16(unix.IFF_TUN | unix.IFF_NO_PI)
 	if multiqueue {
-		req.Flags |= unix.IFF_MULTI_QUEUE
+		baseFlags |= unix.IFF_MULTI_QUEUE
 	}
 	nameStr := c.GetString("tun.dev", "")
-	copy(req.Name[:], nameStr)
-	if err = ioctl(uintptr(fd), uintptr(unix.TUNSETIFF), uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&req))); err != nil {
+
+	fd, err := openTunDev()
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	name, err := tunSetIff(fd, nameStr, baseFlags)
+	if err != nil {
 		_ = unix.Close(fd)
-		return nil, &NameError{
-			Name:       nameStr,
-			Underlying: err,
-		}
+		return nil, &NameError{Name: nameStr, Underlying: err}
 	}
-	name := strings.Trim(string(req.Name[:]), "\x00")
 
 	t, err := newTunGeneric(c, l, fd, vpnNetworks)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -298,16 +144,22 @@ func newTun(c *config.C, l *slog.Logger, vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix, multiqueue
 	return t, nil
 }
 
-// newTunGeneric does all the stuff common to different tun initialization paths. It will close your files on error.
+// newTunGeneric does all the stuff common to different tun initialization
+// paths. It will close your files on error.
 func newTunGeneric(c *config.C, l *slog.Logger, fd int, vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix) (*tun, error) {
-	tfd, err := newTunFd(fd)
+	qs, err := tio.NewPollQueueSet()
 	if err != nil {
 		_ = unix.Close(fd)
 		return nil, err
 	}
+	err = qs.Add(fd)
+	if err != nil {
+		_ = unix.Close(fd)
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
 	t := &tun{
-		tunFile:                   tfd,
-		readers:                   []*tunFile{tfd},
+		readers:                   qs,
 		closeLock:                 sync.Mutex{},
 		vpnNetworks:               vpnNetworks,
 		TXQueueLen:                c.GetInt("tun.tx_queue", 500),
@@ -406,36 +258,41 @@ func (t *tun) reload(c *config.C, initial bool) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return true
+// Queues opens additional kernel multiqueue fds until the device has n
+// queues, then returns them all. The first queue was opened by newTun.
+func (t *tun) Queues(n int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	for len(t.readers.Queues()) < n {
+		if err := t.addQueue(); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+	}
+	return t.readers.Queues(), nil
 }
 
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
+// addQueue opens one more IFF_MULTI_QUEUE fd on the device and adds it to
+// the queue set.
+func (t *tun) addQueue() error {
 	t.closeLock.Lock()
 	defer t.closeLock.Unlock()
 
 	fd, err := unix.Open("/dev/net/tun", os.O_RDWR, 0)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 
-	var req ifReq
-	req.Flags = uint16(unix.IFF_TUN | unix.IFF_NO_PI | unix.IFF_MULTI_QUEUE)
-	copy(req.Name[:], t.Device)
-	if err = ioctl(uintptr(fd), uintptr(unix.TUNSETIFF), uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&req))); err != nil {
+	flags := uint16(unix.IFF_TUN | unix.IFF_NO_PI | unix.IFF_MULTI_QUEUE)
+	if _, err = tunSetIff(fd, t.Device, flags); err != nil {
 		_ = unix.Close(fd)
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 
-	out, err := t.tunFile.newFriend(fd)
+	err = t.readers.Add(fd)
 	if err != nil {
 		_ = unix.Close(fd)
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 
-	t.readers = append(t.readers, out)
-
-	return out, nil
+	return nil
 }
 
 func (t *tun) RoutesFor(ip netip.Addr) routing.Gateways {
@@ -878,32 +735,10 @@ func (t *tun) Close() error {
 		t.routeChan = nil
 	}
 
-	// Signal all readers blocked in poll to wake up and exit
-	_ = t.tunFile.wakeForShutdown()
-
 	if t.ioctlFd > 0 {
 		_ = unix.Close(int(t.ioctlFd))
 		t.ioctlFd = 0
 	}
 
-	for i := range t.readers {
-		if i == 0 {
-			continue //we want to close the zeroth reader last
-		}
-		err := t.readers[i].Close()
-		if err != nil {
-			t.l.Error("error closing tun reader", "reader", i, "error", err)
-		} else {
-			t.l.Info("closed tun reader", "reader", i)
-		}
-	}
-
-	//this is t.readers[0] too
-	err := t.tunFile.Close()
-	if err != nil {
-		t.l.Error("error closing tun reader", "reader", 0, "error", err)
-	} else {
-		t.l.Info("closed tun reader", "reader", 0)
-	}
-	return err
+	return t.readers.Close()
 }

overlay/tun_netbsd.go

@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ package overlay
 import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
 	"os"
@@ -17,6 +16,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	netroute "golang.org/x/net/route"
@@ -390,12 +390,8 @@ func (t *tun) Name() string {
 	return t.Device
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for netbsd")
+func (t *tun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }
 
 func (t *tun) addRoutes(logErrors bool) error {

overlay/tun_openbsd.go

@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ package overlay
 import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
 	"os"
@@ -17,6 +16,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	netroute "golang.org/x/net/route"
@@ -138,8 +138,8 @@ func tunWritev(fd int, iovecs []unix.Iovec) (n int, err error)
 //go:noescape
 func tunReadv(fd int, iovecs []unix.Iovec) (n int, err error)
 
-// Read pulls one IP packet off the tun device, scattering the 4 byte protocol header away from the
-// packet so the payload lands directly in to.
+// Read pulls one IP packet off the tun device, scattering the 4 byte protocol header away from
+// the packet so the payload lands directly in to.
 func (t *tun) Read(to []byte) (int, error) {
 	var head [4]byte
 
@@ -369,12 +369,8 @@ func (t *tun) Name() string {
 	return t.Device
 }
 
-func (t *tun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *tun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for openbsd")
+func (t *tun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }
 
 func (t *tun) addRoutes(logErrors bool) error {

overlay/tun_tester.go

@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/udp"
 )
@@ -177,10 +178,6 @@ func (t *TestTun) Read(b []byte) (int, error) {
 	return n, nil
 }
 
-func (t *TestTun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *TestTun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented")
+func (t *TestTun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, udp.MTU)}, nil
 }

overlay/tun_windows.go

@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ package overlay
 import (
 	"crypto"
 	"fmt"
-	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
 	"os"
@@ -18,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/gaissmai/bart"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/util"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/wintun"
@@ -47,6 +47,10 @@ type winTun struct {
 	tun *wintun.NativeTun
 }
 
+func (t *winTun) Read(b []byte) (int, error) {
+	return t.tun.Read(b, 0)
+}
+
 func newTunFromFd(_ *config.C, _ *slog.Logger, _ int, _ []netip.Prefix) (Device, error) {
 	return nil, fmt.Errorf("newTunFromFd not supported in Windows")
 }
@@ -255,20 +259,12 @@ func (t *winTun) Name() string {
 	return t.Device
 }
 
-func (t *winTun) Read(b []byte) (int, error) {
-	return t.tun.Read(b, 0)
-}
-
 func (t *winTun) Write(b []byte) (int, error) {
 	return t.tun.Write(b, 0)
 }
 
-func (t *winTun) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return false
-}
-
-func (t *winTun) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("TODO: multiqueue not implemented for windows")
+func (t *winTun) Queues(int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	return []tio.Queue{tio.NewSingleQueue(t, defaultBatchBufSize)}, nil
 }
 
 func (t *winTun) Close() error {

overlay/user.go

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"net/netip"
 
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/config"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/routing"
 )
 
@@ -46,12 +47,16 @@ func (d *UserDevice) RoutesFor(ip netip.Addr) routing.Gateways {
 	return routing.Gateways{routing.NewGateway(ip, 1)}
 }
 
-func (d *UserDevice) SupportsMultiqueue() bool {
-	return true
-}
-
-func (d *UserDevice) NewMultiQueueReader() (io.ReadWriteCloser, error) {
-	return d, nil
+func (d *UserDevice) Queues(n int) ([]tio.Queue, error) {
+	out := make([]tio.Queue, n)
+	for i := range out {
+		// All queues share the underlying pipes (the io.Pipe serializes
+		// concurrent callers) but each owns a private scratch buffer so
+		// concurrent Reads across queues never alias. NoClose: the pipes are
+		// owned by the UserDevice and torn down once by UserDevice.Close.
+		out[i] = tio.NewSingleQueueNoClose(d, defaultBatchBufSize)
+	}
+	return out, nil
 }
 
 func (d *UserDevice) Pipe() (*io.PipeReader, *io.PipeWriter) {
@@ -61,9 +66,11 @@ func (d *UserDevice) Pipe() (*io.PipeReader, *io.PipeWriter) {
 func (d *UserDevice) Read(p []byte) (n int, err error) {
 	return d.outboundReader.Read(p)
 }
+
 func (d *UserDevice) Write(p []byte) (n int, err error) {
 	return d.inboundWriter.Write(p)
 }
+
 func (d *UserDevice) Close() error {
 	d.inboundWriter.Close()
 	d.outboundWriter.Close()

overlay/user_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+package overlay
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"net/netip"
+	"sync"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
+)
+
+// newTestUserDevice returns the concrete *UserDevice so tests can reach Pipe()
+// and the internal queue plumbing.
+func newTestUserDevice(t *testing.T) *UserDevice {
+	t.Helper()
+	dev, err := NewUserDevice([]netip.Prefix{netip.MustParsePrefix("10.0.0.1/24")})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("NewUserDevice: %v", err)
+	}
+	ud, ok := dev.(*UserDevice)
+	if !ok {
+		t.Fatalf("NewUserDevice returned %T, want *UserDevice", dev)
+	}
+	return ud
+}
+
+// TestUserDeviceReadersDistinctBuffers ensures each Queue is actually different
+func TestUserDeviceReadersDistinctBuffers(t *testing.T) {
+	d := newTestUserDevice(t)
+
+	readers, err := d.Queues(2)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Queues: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(readers) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("Queues(2) returned %d queues, want 2", len(readers))
+	}
+
+	// Distinct queue objects.
+	if readers[0] == readers[1] {
+		t.Fatal("Queues(2) returned the same queue object twice")
+	}
+
+	// Drive one packet through each queue and confirm the borrowed bytes from
+	// the first read are NOT clobbered by the second read. With a shared
+	// buffer, reading pkt1 into q1 would corrupt q0's still-borrowed slice.
+	_, ow := d.Pipe()
+
+	pkt0 := []byte("packet-zero-aaaaaaaa")
+	pkt1 := []byte("packet-one-bbbbbbbbb")
+
+	// The pipe is unbuffered, so writes block until a reader consumes them.
+	// Serialize: write pkt0 (read on q0), then write pkt1 (read on q1).
+	go func() {
+		if _, err := ow.Write(pkt0); err != nil {
+			t.Errorf("write pkt0: %v", err)
+		}
+		if _, err := ow.Write(pkt1); err != nil {
+			t.Errorf("write pkt1: %v", err)
+		}
+	}()
+
+	got0, err := readers[0].Read()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("q0.Read: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(got0) != 1 || string(got0[0].Bytes) != string(pkt0) {
+		t.Fatalf("q0 first read = %q, want %q", firstBytes(got0), pkt0)
+	}
+	// Hold onto q0's borrowed slice across q1's read.
+	borrowed := got0[0].Bytes
+
+	got1, err := readers[1].Read()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("q1.Read: %v", err)
+	}
+	if len(got1) != 1 || string(got1[0].Bytes) != string(pkt1) {
+		t.Fatalf("q1 read = %q, want %q", firstBytes(got1), pkt1)
+	}
+
+	// q0's borrowed bytes must still hold pkt0 - a shared buffer would now
+	// show pkt1's contents.
+	if string(borrowed) != string(pkt0) {
+		t.Fatalf("q0 borrowed bytes were clobbered by q1's read: got %q, want %q", borrowed, pkt0)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestUserDeviceReadersConcurrentRace exercises two queues reading distinct
+// packets concurrently. Run it under `go test -race`: with the old
+// shared-buffer implementation the concurrent Reads raced on readBuf/batchRet
+// and corrupted each other's returned slices.
+func TestUserDeviceReadersConcurrentRace(t *testing.T) {
+	d := newTestUserDevice(t)
+	readers, err := d.Queues(2)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Queues: %v", err)
+	}
+	_, ow := d.Pipe()
+
+	const iterations = 200
+
+	errs := make(chan error, 3)
+
+	// Each reader parks in Read on the shared outboundReader; io.Pipe hands
+	// each write to whichever reader is currently waiting. We only care that
+	// concurrent Reads into distinct buffers are race-free, so any parked
+	// reader may serve any write.
+	var wg sync.WaitGroup
+	run := func(idx int) {
+		defer wg.Done()
+		for i := 0; i < iterations; i++ {
+			pkts, err := readers[idx].Read()
+			if err != nil {
+				errs <- err
+				return
+			}
+			if len(pkts) != 1 {
+				errs <- fmt.Errorf("reader %d: got %d packets, want 1", idx, len(pkts))
+				return
+			}
+			// Touch every byte of the borrowed slice while the other reader
+			// may be mid-Read; a shared buffer would race here.
+			total := 0
+			for _, c := range pkts[0].Bytes {
+				total += int(c)
+			}
+			_ = total
+		}
+	}
+
+	wg.Add(2)
+	go run(0)
+	go run(1)
+
+	// Feed 2*iterations packets. io.Pipe copies each write straight into the
+	// waiting reader's private buffer, so reusing buf between writes is safe.
+	go func() {
+		buf := make([]byte, 32)
+		for i := 0; i < 2*iterations; i++ {
+			for j := range buf {
+				buf[j] = byte(i + j)
+			}
+			if _, err := ow.Write(buf); err != nil {
+				errs <- err
+				return
+			}
+		}
+	}()
+
+	wg.Wait()
+	select {
+	case err := <-errs:
+		t.Fatalf("concurrent reader failed: %v", err)
+	default:
+	}
+}
+
+func firstBytes(p []tio.Packet) []byte {
+	if len(p) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return p[0].Bytes
+}